Teaching in a Globalised World

I came across an interesting section relating to globalisation in Reflective Teaching and Learning in the Secondary School (edited by Sue Dymoke). This post is centred on a section which can be found on pages 270-271 and is about teaching in a globalised society.

As beginning teachers entering the profession in the early years of the twenty-first century, you may be teaching students who will live to see the twenty-second century. It is not hard to imagine that their world will be very different from the one we know today. If the trends of the last century are to continue, we will see a continuation of the progressive globalisation of recent decades. Globalisation is often narrowly defined as the interrelationship and interdependence of economies, the transfer of power from nation states to transnational corporations, yet it is a much broader political, technological and cultural phenomenon as well. In this era of profound social change, global and citizenship education play a vital role in developing the strong civil societies that could ensure that globalisation becomes a force for global sustainability and survival.

This section of the book goes beyond curriculum content and introduces activities which encourage new teachers to reflect on their own role, drawing upon the qualities of the ‘global teacher’. Teaching is thought to be a vital step in preparing students for living in a globalised world. Pupils could also be asked to think of the products and services they use which are a result of a globalised world. The teacher could then discuss some of the more complex things that pupils may not have thought of or that are not as obvious.

 

Globalisation - The Role Of The Internet

The Internet is both a product of globalisation as well as a catalyst for its expansion, connecting computer users across the world. From 2000 to 2009 the number of Internet users globally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion! By 2010, 22% of the world's population had access to computers with 1 billion Google searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading blogs and 2 billion videos viewed daily on YouTube. Being able to read this blog from almost anywhere on the planet is a product of the Internet and therefore globalisation!

 

The size of total worldwide e-commerce when global business-to-business and consumer transactions are added together will equate to $16 trillion by the end of 2013.  It has been estimated that the global market for digital products and services is worth $4.4 trillion. These two figures added together ($20.4 trillion) provide an estimate of the size and value of the digital economy. This means the Internet is responsible for 13.8% of global sales.

While much has been written about the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the Internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide. Electronic commerce may also be partly responsible for the decline of small businesses. The ease of Internet-shopping and ordering products online has lead to reduced trade in highstreet shops. The Internet has also introduced new social media from which an ‘online community’ has developed. Significant socio-technical change may have resulted from the proliferation of such Internet-based social networks. There are also several highly publicised risks associated with the Internet for example cyber-bullying, identity theft and fraud. 

 

The Internet provides access to resources for millions of people across the planet. With cheap smart-phones taking off in Africa and $20 tablets being produced in India, the world is becoming ever more connected by the minute. The increasing level of access to the Internet is a microcosm of the globalisation phenomenon. It is a facilitator to connect people over huge geographical areas, exposing different cultures to one another and makes the planet smaller.

 

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

The World Trade Organisation is a driver of globalisation. The WTO supervises and encourages international trade. It was set up in 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO regulates trade between participating countries; providing a framework for negotiating and formalising trade agreements and a dispute resolution process. The WTO's current director-general is Roberto Azevêdo, who leads a staff force of over 600 people in Geneva, Switzerland.

 

The organisation is attempting to complete negotiations that focus on addressing the needs of developing countries. There are obstacles to agreeing trade deals between MEDCs and LEDCs however. Free trade on industrial goods and services with the retention of protectionism on farm subsidies to domestic agricultural has been requested by developed countries. Developing countries require international liberalisation of fair trade on agricultural products. These issues are central to the current debate and have hindered any progress to launch new WTO negotiations. As a result of this impasse, there have been an increasing number of bilateral free trade agreements signed.

Globalisation ... Or Should That Be Globalization?

Globalisation is seen by many outside the United States as ‘Americanization’. This term has been used to show the influence the US has over the culture of other countries. Culture can include popular culture, cuisine, technology, business practices, political techniques etc. Western culture, especially that of the US, has been diffused all over the world through television, cinema, the internet, newspapers and magazines. ‘American tendencies’ have since been reflected in media, art, sport and leisure pursuits. Local economies, traditions and languages are all ‘threatened’ by globalisation which moulds the world into a capitalist western-society based on the American blueprint.

 

Signs of Americanization include:

Ø  The domination of most of the world's media markets by Hollywood. This showcases American fashions, customs, scenery and way of life to people across the globe.

Ø  Of the top ten global brands, seven are based in the United States. Coca-Cola holds the top spot in global branding and is often viewed as a symbol of Americanization. The proliferation of fast food chains is also viewed as being a symbol of U.S. marketing dominance.

Ø  The casual ‘American’ style of wearing jeans, t-shirts and sports shoes is now common and acceptable in many places across the globe.

 

The US has taken gigantic steps in persuading the rest of the world to think and act like them. Many people especially the Europeans have often despised Americans saying they have no culture or history, but the US has created an identity and a culture – the ‘American lifestyle’. They are now exporting this across the globe with the help of globalisation which is affecting local cultures.  

Global Marketing

Global marketing has been defined as ‘marketing on a worldwide scale, reconciling or taking advantage of global operational differences, similarities and opportunities in order to meet global objectives’. When a company becomes a global marketer, it views the world as one market and creates products to fit the various regional marketplaces. The ultimate goal is to sell the same thing, the same way, everywhere!

Coca-Cola is an example of a company with a single product – only minor elements are tweaked for different markets. The company uses the same formulas (one with sugar, the other with corn syrup) for all its markets. The bottle design is the same in every country but the size of the bottles and cans conforms to each country’s standard sizing. This link (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19550067) shows the global reach and history of Coca-Cola. The article shows how the growth of the Coca-Cola brand has been closely aligned to geo-political events over its 126 year history. Coca-Cola as a drink and as a company embodies the globalisation phenomenon.

Trade, Trade Blocs and the European Union

World trade has been the continuing basis of global interdependence. By the 1970s an international economy had been established. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947 and sought to gradually lower the barriers to international trade; with free trade as its ultimate aim. Reaching agreements has not been easy, but average trade tariffs have shrunk to a tenth of their level when GATT first began operating. World trade has therefore been increasing at a much faster rate than gross domestic product (GDP). In recent years however agreements have become increasingly difficult to reach.

 

Since the 1950s countries have joined together to form trade blocs in order to stimulate trade between themselves and to obtain economic benefits from cooperation. There are various mechanisms for this, including free trade areas, customs unions, common markets and economic unions such as the European Union (EU), of which the UK is a current member.    

 

The EU is the world’s largest trading bloc and the second largest economy (after the USA). The EU was originally called the European Economic Community (EEC) after its formation following the Treaty of Rome in 1957. There were originally six members: Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg but this has now expanded to 28 members (see the expansion of the EU in the animation below). The initial aim was to create a single market for goods, services, capital and labour by eliminating barriers to trade and promoting free trade between members. The EU has also set up common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development as well as allowing the free movement of people between member countries.

Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs)

First Phase: A key element in the process of globalisation has been the emergence of newly industrialised countries (NICs) – they have undergone rapid industrialisation since the early 1960s. When TNCs looked for areas where labour and other costs were lower, the countries of east Asia were targeted.

 

Japanese TNCs were among the first to seek new areas for their operations and it was logical that they should look at their less developed neighbours, particularly South Korea and Taiwan. These countries, along with Singapore and Hong Kong, became collectively known as the Asian Tigers. The advantages of these countries for the development of manufacturing industry were:

 

Ø  A reasonably well developed level of infrastructure such as roads, railways and ports.

Ø  Relatively well educated populations with existing skills.

Ø  Cultural traditions that revere education and achievement.

Ø  Good geographical location – Singapore for example is situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Ø  Government support for example offering low interest rates on bank loans.

Ø  Less rigid laws and regulations on labour, taxation and pollution than TNCs’ parent countries, allowing more profitable operations.

 

As the economies of NICs grew, large indigenous firms began to grow, helped by the economic climate and government aid. The ‘chaebols’ (huge business conglomerates) of South Korea, helped by the government, were able to expand.

 

Second Phase: As the economies of these NICs grew, wage levels and the cost of operating within these countries began to increase. As a result Japanese, US and European TNCs looked for a second generation of countries that could support their operations. Such areas had recent improvements in both physical and human infrastructures but wage levels that were still low. At the same time, companies that had grown in the original NICs, such as the ‘chaebols’ of South Korea, also began to move routine manufacturing tasks to their neighbours, such as Malaysia and Thailand.

 

Third Phase: In recent years, both China and India have emerged as targets for foreign direct investment (FDI) by TNCs. Since 1990, both countries have shown rapid and sustained economic growth. China’s growth is the fasted experienced by any country, at one time averaging a real per capita growth of more than 10% a year. China is now the world’s second biggest economy behind the USA overtaking Japan in 2010.

The IMF and the World Bank

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank play major roles in running the world economy. Some people criticise the way in which these two organisations operate however.

 

The IMF was established to oversee the global financial system. It offers financial and technical assistance to its members, making it the international lender of last resort. One of its briefs is to renegotiate the terms of debt on behalf of nations in financial difficulties. To prevent the problem occurring again the IMF usually imposes conditions on its financial assistance. These conditions often include severe cuts in welfare and education spending by governments in developing countries and this has caused controversy.

 

The World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) deals mainly with internal investment projects, usually in developing countries, with the stated aim of reducing poverty. Loans are set at the current market rate. However, one branch of the bank, known as the International Development Association (IDA), provides interest-free loans (with long repayment periods) to countries with very low per capita incomes. Since the 1990s the bank has claimed that it promotes sustainable development, with most funding going to small-scale projects. However, its critics argue that conditions attached to loans have not always had the effect of reducing poverty and dependency.

Trade vs Aid

Since the 1940s efforts to create development in the poorer countries of the world have centred around two approaches:

 

Ø  The use of trade to promote economic growth.

Ø  The provision of aid by developed countries (and latterly oil-rich states).

 

Defining the terms: Trade is the business of buying and selling commodities; commerce in this case between less developed countries and more economically developed ones. Aid is help that comes from more wealthy nations or organisations. There are different forms of aid. Bilateral aid is money given directly to a countries government. Multilateral aid is money given to organisations such as the IMF, the World Bank and UNICEF who then redistribute it to those most in need. Non-governmental organisations also distribute aid through charities such as Oxfam.

 

There are several positives of trade. It provides a basis for developing countries own improvement for example governance, currency stability and international security. If developing countries relaxed barriers between themselves they could all be more prosperous. Trade encourages development as people compete on a global scale. To be part of some trade blocks certain criteria have to be met e.g. human rights, corruption and many other preconditions to trade. The ‘Multiplier Effect’ whereby trade makes its way makes its way through the whole economy is seen as a huge positive.

 

There are also negative aspects of trade to consider. There are barriers to trade e.g. trade blocks imposing tariffs, taxes, subsidies and regulations. Developing countries base their economies on ‘cash crops’ and therefore if the global price goes down or competition increases then the countries income through trade will be reduced. It is also very hard for developing countries to compete with the EU and USA as they have no economic power. Trade also relies on a good infrastructure e.g. roads, railways, ports and skilled civilians. These do not exist in developing countries and therefore aid is needed to initially improve infrastructure. Trade is not an option for countries that simply do not have the resources or materials to trade with and so these countries cannot get themselves out of trouble without aid.

 

Aid comes in several forms and may not necessarily be money but goods or technical assistance. Aid can be allocated to those in greatest need with money going to specific groups e.g. churches, health centres etc. Aid is often seen as the answer to problems but it is hard to solve large scale problems quickly. Aid can be seen as embarrassing for the country that receives it and they do not feel they can act on international issues as their view may appear to be bought. Countries may also become reliant on aid from the perceived endless wealth of the west. This often encourages migration to the origin of the aid as the country must be rich and prosperous for all – this is not the case as there is poverty in all countries. Aid is not guaranteed, in times of economic hardship, aid may be reduced and this has negative effects on the recipient country. Aid may often be donated with ‘strings attached’ (tied aid) whereby the recipient has to agree to conditions (often relating to spending the aid).   

 

Globalisation encourages trade between countries but it is often the least developed nations that pay the largest penalties. Aid provided for natural disaster is one thing but many poor nations are in an unstable economic position because of exploitation by MEDCs. Trade is often in favour of MEDCs and therefore the rich get richer.  The economics of a capitalist global society mean that it is impossible for everyone to be equally wealthy.

Flight Paths

This image was published on the BBC News website in May 2013. Not only is it a beautiful picture it also highlights how air travel has expanded over the years. Locations on the other side of the world are now hours not months away. Whilst the planet has remained the same size air travel has in relative terms made it smaller. This smaller world has lead to areas that at one time might as well have been on another planet being realistic economic partners for trade. The flight paths also reflect the broadening horizons of the typical holiday destination. The seaside holiday of the early 20^th century has been replaced with destinations such as Australia, Asia and the Americas.  

 

This at first seems a basic image simply mapping flight paths. When you start to consider some of the issues and talking-points that are linked to aviation however this image could lead to several areas of discussion within the classroom. It is suited to help children think about some of the wider implications of globalisation in relation to both economics and the environment. There are three main focus areas for flights: Europe, North America and East Asia. This highlights the centres that are powering globalisation. There is also the environmental aspect of the image to consider - the impact of emissions related to air travel. Historically the environmental problem has been the responsibility of the countries where the industrial revolution took place centuries ago. Aviation is slightly different however with long-haul flights (the source of most emissions) beginning in the 1970s we see a greater impact by Asia. China, Thailand, Malaysia, Japan, Korea, and Australasia are all contributors to this source of carbon dioxide.

Containerisation

Containerisation is a key process that continues to drive globalisation. This is the process whereby freight is transported using shipping containers with standardised dimensions. It has changed docklands across the world and means that loading and unloading goods (onto a range of transportation vehicles) has become quick and efficient. Containerisation was first developed after World War II and lead to reduced transport costs. It supported the post-war boom in international trade and has continued to aid globalisation. By 2009^[update] approximately 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is moved by containers stacked on transport ships!

 

I think containerisation is a very interesting aspect of the globalisation story. This method of moving resources has allowed production and delivery of goods worldwide. Without this container system it could be argued that globalisation would not have been as quick to develop. I watched this programme (http://www.bbc.co.uk/i/scpzn/) when it was first broadcast and found it to be excellent ‘horizon-style’ documentary. It covers the basic principle and benefits of containerisation as well as some of the negative aspects i.e. smuggling/counterfeit goods. It may not be worth showing the entire programme to a class but a few '3-minute-clips' could be selected and discussed. I think this would provide a suitable starter or one-off lesson within the broader topic of globalisation.

 

 

Negative Impacts of Globalisation

As promised this post will look at some of the negative aspects of globalisation. The same note of caution applies to this post as the last - opinion on positive and negative areas will be dependent on an individual’s view-point.

 

The process of globalisation operates largely in the interests of the more economically developed countries (MEDCs). MEDCs have driven a process in which they continue to dominate world trade at the expense of developing countries. The role of less economically developed countries (LEDCs) in the world market is mostly to provide rich MEDCs with cheap labour and raw materials. There is little international regulation of TNCs which has lead to negative consequences for the safety of people and the environment. Globalisation provides a vector for diseases and invasive species to spread worldwide; this can lead to devastation of native ecosystems.

 

Investment by large TNCs is not guaranteed to benefit the local community. Profits are often sent back to the MEDC where the TNC is based. Added to this is the fact that TNCs benefit from the economies of scale and often drive local companies out of business. TNCs also have the capability to move the location of their factory if cheaper operational costs are available in another country. This leaves the workers vulnerable to redundancy through over dependence on TNC employment.

 

Some see the ‘positive’ of exchange of cultures as in fact a negative that reduces individuality and true culture. Local economies, traditions and languages are all threatened by globalisation which moulds the world into a capitalist western-society. This trend for western culture can be seen in the spread of fast food chains such as McDonalds and Burger King. This has increased the consumption of junk food across the globe and is having a negative impact on people’s health.

 

The negative impacts of globalisation are by no means restricted to LEDCs however. Outsourcing of jobs provides employment to the population in that country but at the same time takes away those jobs from the source country. This shift is apparent in the textiles industry which now thrives in LEDCs at the expense of jobs in manufacturing in the UK and other MEDCs.

Positive Impacts of Globalisation

Globalisation is having a dramatic effect on the world, in this post I will be looking at some of its positive impacts. Note however that it is difficult to define positives (and negatives) as opinion will be dependent on an individual’s view-point. For example the owner of a TNC is likely to have a very different opinion compared to an environmentalist!    

 

TNCs provide an opportunity for people in developing countries through employment. Money from investment in the country provides greater chances for those living there to improve their standard of living. TNCs provide capital for local economies through the purchase of local resources, products and services. This income provides the opportunity for investment into education, health and the country’s infrastructure. New jobs are created and skills are gained by workers. The developing country itself may benefit from the technologies that TNCs bring with them, in time this may encourage home-grown businesses to emerge and expand.  

 

Governments work towards common goals as there are advantages in cooperation. Globalisation has improved the ability of countries to interact, coordinate and be aware of global issues. Events in areas of the world once considered ‘far-away’ are reported globally; for example the UK was quickly made aware of the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami and was able to send aid. Global issues such as deforestation and global warming are also know the world over and the need for sustainable development has a greater chance of being conveyed.

 

A globalised world has encouraged sharing of ideas, cultures and lifestyles. People now experience foods and other products not previously available in their countries. Culture comes in many forms a few examples include; movies, music, food and clothing. People have more variety and greater choice. Global competition encourages creativity and innovation and keeps prices for commodities and services low; benefitting the end consumer. Global media coverage draws the attention of the world to human right violations leading to improvements.

 

I hope that this post has covered some of the positive aspects of globalisation, in my next post I will look at its negative features.   

The North-South Divide

Globalisation is thought by many to be the leading cause of global inequality; enhancing social and economic disparity between countries. Globalisation requires economies and societies to adapt quickly to change, this does not happen equally as some nations are able to grow faster. MEDCs adapt and exploit LEDCs for resources and workers. LEDCs become dependent on MEDC money to survive in the global market. The process of globalisation therefore favours MEDCs as opposed to LEDCs and this has lead to a strengthening of the North-South divide. The rich get richer and the poor get poorer.

 

Rich MEDCs tend to be located in the northern-hemisphere and poor LEDCs tend to be located in the southern-hemisphere (although there were exceptions e.g. Australia and New Zealand). The Brandt Report of 1980 set out this difference as a physical divide on the map - the ‘Brandt Line’. Since then however globalisation has lead to the development of some nations geographically located in the south; they are now economically regarded as northern. To many economists this has made the concept of the Brandt Line obsolete. It has been suggested that instead of the Brandt Line there are in fact four groupings of the world’s economies:

 

1.      Affluent countries e.g. USA, most of Europe and Japan. For the past 50 years they have dominated the global economy (other countries are now emerging).

2.     Emerging countries e.g. China and India. With high levels of growth these countries are set to replace/join the first group. They are the ‘engines of the global economy’.

3.     Countries with important natural resources for example oil and gas reserves. They have not been able to translate the wealth from natural resources into sustained economic growth.

4.      World’s poorest economies e.g. much of sub-Saharan Africa. They continue to stagnate and decline economically, are isolated from the global economy and face crucial development challenges.

 

I think this area of globalisation (which also links to development) would be ideally suited to a class debate. Half in favour of the Brandt Line and the other half in favour of a more recent economic divide. Groups could research the different divides and then a debate (steered by the teacher) with arguments based on evidence for and against. The debate would lend itself to an end-of-topic task as there would be more freedom for pupils to talk widely about the knowledge they have gained (at the teacher’s discretion).    

 

The Role Of Transnational Corporations (TNCs) In Globalisation

Transnational corporations (TNCs) and multinational corporations are often cited as being key drivers behind globalisation. Definitions of these two types of corporation are slightly different but in general terms they can be thought of as the same entity (from now on they shall be referred to as TNCs). The majority of global production used to take place within national boundaries. In the last few decades TNCs have changed this through international trade and production. This means that many TNCs have their headquarters located in one country, their sourcing or production networks in one or more other countries and their share listings on several stock exchanges.

 

Most of the largest TNCs are based in more economically developed countries (MEDCs). Recently however there has been a marked expansion in the size and number of TNCs from the richer developing countries and newly industrialised countries (NICs). The world's largest TNCs are the principal drivers of international production and trade. More than a third of all global trade takes place between TNCs and 70% of all trade involves at least one TNC! TNCs have driven globalisation by moving operations across the world and by doing so have created a global economy. The growth of TNCs has been particularly rapid since the 1970s: in 1975 there were approximately 7,000 TNCs, by 2000 there were over 60,000!

 

The impact of TNCs on the countries in which they operate can be positive and negative. Laws in foreign countries are often more relaxed and environmental safeguarding is often overlooked. TNCs often make the most of these relaxed laws as they have no requirement to be environmentally friendly. Other negative impacts include social issues and human rights. Note: the positive and negative issues of globalisation will be looked at in a later post.

 

The image below could be presented to a class with the focus on the 10 TNCs at the centre of the image. The class could be divided into groups of 2-3 and asked to research one of the TNCs or a TNC of their own choice (if cleared with the teacher) on computers/laptops. Alongside general information on the TNC there could be set requirements from the research. This might include finding the locations of their TNCs: (and setting this out on a map).

 

Ø  Headquarters

Ø  Research and development

Ø  Source of raw materials

Ø  Manufacturing

 

Reasons For Globalisation

Many aspects of the world that we know today are the result of globalisation. Before we look at these aspects in more detail however we should ask a fundamental question:

 

Ø  What are the reasons that globalisation has taken place and continues to take place?    

 

The different aspects of the globalisation phenomenon have been individually researched in great detail. There is not an all encompassing reason for globalisation rather a series of interconnected causes.  Although opinions differ on what the most important causes are there are several key reasons for globalisation:

 

Ø  Multinational corporations have global reach and increasing power.

Ø  Travel and shipping are cheap and safe.

Ø  Governments have decreased tariffs and regulations on international trade.

 

These key reasons along with other drivers of globalisation are covered in the following video from GCSE BBC Bitesize. The video provides a basic but competent overview of globalisation and could be shown as a:

 

Ø  Starter to the topic (assuming no prior knowledge).

Ø  Task based exercise where pupils would be asked to make notes i.e. define globalisation, positives vs. negatives of globalisation ...

Ø  Conclusion to a lesson to consolidate knowledge.

Ø  Revision aid at the end of the module.   

Getting To Grips With Globalisation

The term ‘globalisation’ is frequently quoted by politicians, economists, business owners, environmentalists and the list goes on ... but what does it actually mean?! Globalisation is traditionally seen as a primarily economic concept ... ‘the functional integration of the World’s economies’, but the term now has wider connotations. When looking for a definition of the term there seemed to be no standard meaning. Globalisation was defined as the following:

 

Ø  The process enabling financial and investment markets to operate internationally, largely as a result of deregulation and improved communications.

Ø  The process by which a company, etc., expands to operate internationally.

Ø  The worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade and communications integration. Globalisation implies the opening of local and nationalistic perspectives to a broader outlook of an interconnected and interdependent world with free transfer of capital, goods, and services across national frontiers.

 

It is therefore clear that the term globalisation is used by different people to mean different things. Pupils being taught to the topic for the first time need to be made aware of this complexity but without introducing too much confusion. The topic may need to be broken down into smaller more manageable facets such as; economic, political, cultural and environmental globalisation. The definition on BBC Bitesize GCSE answers ‘what is globalisation?’ very succinctly:

 

Ø  The process by which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected as a result of massively increased trade and cultural exchange. Globalisation has increased the production of goods and services. The biggest companies are no longer national firms but multinational corporations with subsidiaries in many countries. Globalisation has been taking place for hundreds of years, but has speeded up enormously over the last half-century.

 

Now that I have looked into the topic of globalisation it is clear that there are many different terms to understand and areas to explore.